Language in the Byzantine Empire

Language in the Byzantine Empire Constantinople, the new capital that Emperor Constantine developed in the East in the early fourth century CE, lay in a largely Greek-speaking area of the Roman Empire. That doesnt mean that before the Fall of Rome the emperors headquartered and the people living there were native Greek speakers or, even if they were, incompetent Latin speakers. Both languages, Greek and Latin, were part of the repertoire of the educated. Until recently, those who considered themselves educated might be native English speakers but could piece out a short passage of Latin in their literary reading and get by speaking French. Peter and Catherine the Great ushered in an era where the politically important, the nobility of Russia, knew the French language and literature as well as Russian. It was similar in the ancient world. Greek Culture Greek literature and themes dominated Roman writing until the mid-third century B.C., which is about a century after Alexander the Great had started the spread of Hellenism including the Greek Koine language throughout the vast areas that he had conquered. Greek was the language Roman aristocrats demonstrated to show their culture. They imported Greek pedagogues to teach their young. The important rhetorician of the first century BCE, Quintilian, advocated education in Greek  since Roman children would naturally learn Latin on their own. (Inst. Oratoria i.12-14) From the second century CE, it became common for the wealthy to send their already Greek-speaking, but native-Latin-speaking Roman sons to Athens, Greece for higher education. Latin Gaining in Popularity Before the division of the Empire first into the four parts known as the Tetrarchy under Diocletian in 293 CE and then into two (simply an Eastern and a Western section), the second century CE Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote his meditations in Greek, following the affectations popular with philosophers. By this time, however, in the West, Latin had gained a certain cachet. A bit later, a contemporary of Constantine, Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 330-395 CE), from Antioch, Syria, but living in Rome, wrote his history not in his familiar Greek, but in Latin. The first century CE Greek biographer Plutarch went to Rome to learn the language better. (p. 85 Ostler, citing Plutarch Demosthenes 2) The distribution was such that Latin was the language of the people to the west and north of a dividing line beyond Thrace, Macedonia, and Epirus down to northern Africa west of western Cyrenaica. In rural areas, the uneducated would not have been expected to know Greek, and if their native language were something other than Latin it might be Aramaic, Syriac, Coptic, or some other ancient tongue they might not even have known Latin well. Likewise on the other side of the dividing line, but with Greek and Latin reversed In the East, they probably knew Greek in rural areas, to the exclusion of Latin, but in urban areas, like Constantinople, Nicomedia, Smyrna, Antioch, Berytus, and Alexandria, most people needed to have some command of both Greek and Latin. Latin helped one advance in the imperial and military service, but otherwise, it was more a formality than a useful tongue, beginning at the start of the fifth century. Last of the Romans The so-called Last of the Romans, Constantinople-based Emperor Justinian (r. 527-565), who was an Illyrian by birth, was a native Latin speaker. Living about a century after the Edward Gibbon-driven date of 476 for the Fall of Rome, Justinian made efforts to regain sections of the West lost to European barbarians. (Barbarian was a term the Greeks had used to mean non-Greek speakers and which the Romans adapted to mean those who spoke neither Greek nor Latin.) Justinian may have been trying to retake the Western Empire, but he had challenges closer to home  since neither Constantinople nor the provinces of the Eastern Empire were secure. There were also the famous Nika riots and a plague (see Lives of the Caesars). By his time, Greek had become the official language of the surviving section of the Empire, the Eastern (or later, Byzantine) Empire. Justinian had to publish his famous law code, the Corpus Iuris Civile in both Greek and Latin. Greeks vs Romans This sometimes confuses people who think the use of the Greek language in Constantinople means the inhabitants thought of themselves as Greeks, rather than as Romans. Particularly when arguing for a post-5th-century date for the Fall of Rome, some counter that by the time the Eastern Empire stopped legally requiring Latin, the inhabitants thought of themselves as Greeks, not Romans. Ostler asserts that the Byzantines referred to their language as romaika (Romanish) and that this term was in use until the 19th century. In addition, the people were known as Rumi a term obviously much closer to Roman than Greek. We in the West might think of them as non-Romans, but that is another story. By the time of Justinian, Latin was not the common tongue of Constantinople, although it was still an official language. The Roman people of the city spoke a form of Greek, a Koine. Sources Chapter 8 Greek in the Byzantine Empire: The Major Issues Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers, Second Edition, by Geoffrey Horrocks; Wiley:  © 2010.The Latin Language, by L. R. Palmer; University of Oklahoma Press: 1987.Ad Infinitum: A Biography of Latin, by Nicholas Ostler; Walker: 2007.

Admissions Applications and the Parent Questionnaire

Admissions Applications and the Parent Questionnaire One aspect of the private school admission process is the completion of a formal  application, which includes both a student and a parent questionnaire. Many parents spend hours going over the student portion with their children, but the parent application needs ample attention, as well. This piece of information is a crucial part of the application, and is something that admission committees read  carefully. Heres what you need to know: The Purpose of the Parent Questionnaire This document may also be  known as the Parent Statement. The rationale for this series of questions is to have you, the parent or guardian, answer questions about your child. There is the understanding that you know your child better than any teacher or counselor, so your thoughts matter. Your answers should help the admissions staff get to know your child better. However, its important to be realistic about your child and remember that every child has both strengths and areas in which he or she can improve.   Answer the Questions Truthfully Dont paint a picture-perfect vision of your child. It important to be genuine and authentic. Some of the questions can be personal and probing. Be careful not to distort or avoid the facts. For example, when the school asks you to describe your childs character and personality, you need to do so succinctly yet honestly. If your child has been expelled or failed a year, you must address the issue forthrightly and honestly. The same goes for information related to educational accommodations, learning challenges, and emotional or physical challenges your child may experience. Just because you disclose information that may not be a glowing positive, doesnt mean that your child isnt a good fit for the school. At the same time, full explaining  the needs of your child can help the school to assess if they can provide the necessary accommodations to ensure success. The last thing you want to do is send your child to a school that cant meet your childs needs.   Make a Rough Draft of Your Answers Always print out a copy of the questionnaire or copy the questions into a document on your computer. Use this secondary place to write a rough draft of your answers to each question. Edit for coherence and clarity. Then put the document aside for twenty-four hours.  Look at it again a day or so later. Ask yourself how your answers will be interpreted by the admissions staff who do not know your child as you do. Have a trusted adviser or, if you have hired one, your educational consultant, review your answers. Then input your answers into the online portal (most schools require online applications these days) and submit along with the other documents. Write Your Own Answers Do not underestimate the importance of the Parent Questionnaire. Something that you may say in your answers could  resonate with the admissions staff and make them feel a connection to you and your family. Your answers might even tip the scale in your childs favor and help the school understand how they can play a primary role in your childs education, helping him or her succeed and achieve their best, both during the years attending the school and beyond. Take plenty of time to craft thoughtful, considered answers that accurately reflect you and your child. Do not have an assistant answer these questions for you. Even if you are a very busy CEO or a  single parent working full time and juggling multiple children, this one document is extremely important; make time to complete it. This is your childs future at stake. Things are not like they used to be decades ago when perhaps the mere fact that you were an important person would suffice to get your child admitted. The same is true for consultants. If you are working with a consultant, it is still important that your questionnaire, and your childs portion of the application (if he or she is old enough to complete one) should be genuine and from you. Most consultants would not write the responses for you, and you should question your consultant if he or she suggests this practice. The school will want to see evidence that you personally have tended to this questionnaire. It is one more indication to the school that you are a committed and involved partner with the school in your childs education. Many schools highly value the partnership with parents and family members, and investing your time in the parent questionnaire can show that youre dedicated to supporting your child and that you will be an involved parent.   Article edited by  Stacy Jagodowski